Now researchers have measured the first ionization potential of Lr, which reflects the binding energy of the most weakly-bound valence electron in lawrencium's atomic shell.

It describes options and how to calibrate plane parallel ionization chambers, against air kerma or absorbed dose to water standards at cobalt-60 gamma ray energies. The use of these chambers to ...

T. J. Lewis, Electron Energy Distributions in Uniform Electric Fields and the Townsend Ionization Coefficient, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, ...

Here, we report an unprecedentedly high degree of ionization of xenon atoms by 1.5 keV free-electron laser pulses to charge states with ionization energies far exceeding the photon energy.